Jakub Zagalski sits down with Col Leszek Paszkowski, Head of the Geospatial Intelligence and Satellite Services Agency (Agencja Rozpoznania Geoprzestrzennego i Usług Satelitarnych – ARGUS), to talk about the development of Polish satellite constellations and the space arms race.

The first Polish military satellite, MikroSAR, has been orbiting Earth for several months now. The next two were launched on March 30, 2026. But this is just the beginning. When are we planning to send more of them into orbit?

We are building three constellations consisting of six MikroSAR radar imaging satellites, four MikroGLOB electro-optical observation satellites, and two large satellites from the POLEOS program. This year, we are planning to launch three MikroSAR satellites and all MikroGLOB satellites into orbit. The remaining four will reach operational readiness in space in 2027, which will give us a total of 12 Polish military satellites.

Cezary Tomczyk, Deputy Minister of National Defense, recently spoke about plans to build Poland’s first geostationary satellite. How does this system work?

Unlike the ones mentioned earlier, it is not used to observe Earth, but to provide satellite communications. This system meets MILSATCOM (Military Satellite Communications) standards, which means it will be better protected against various types of interference than commercial solutions. ARGUS primarily focuses on reconnaissance, but we will also be responsible for all observation, communications, and navigation satellites that the Polish Armed Forces acquire in the future, including their implementation into service, maintenance in orbit, and ensuring their protection. However, we don’t handle the utilization of all their capabilities. Satellite communications, for instance, fall under the jurisdiction of the Cyber Defense Forces Component Command.

Returning to observation satellites, why is the Polish military developing as many as three constellations of different systems?

Mainly because they complement one another. I mean the small MikroSAR radar and MikroGLOB optical satellites, as well as the large POLEOS optical satellites. We treat images obtained from optical systems as the primary source of information, but to comprehensively identify and analyze data from potential operational areas, we also need radar images (Synthetic Aperture Radar – SAR). They are less precise and more difficult to interpret, but they enable us to supplement our knowledge with information that we cannot see in optical images. Another extremely valuable feature of radar systems is that SAR satellites “see” through clouds and after dark, because unlike optical systems, they do not require daylight.

Does this mean radar images are more difficult to interpret?

Looking at an optical satellite image, almost anyone can perform a basic analysis, describe what it shows. A radar image is much more difficult to interpret, as it depends on a lot of factors, such as the wave incidence angle and the orientation of the observed object. The signature of military equipment in such an image is not obvious, and analysts often identify it “only” with a high degree of probability. Therefore, SAR images typically serve as supplementary material for analysts working with optical data, supported by algorithms and artificial intelligence. Radar images are, however, indispensable for identifying the characteristics of particular objects.

Can we get an example?

In a radar image, metal objects have a strong signature, you can say they clearly “shine” or “glow.” An optical satellite will show us an object casting a shadow, but thanks to SAR technology, we can interpret it, for example, as a metal fence. In an optical image, we will see air defense systems, but the cables connecting individual system components will only “shine” in a radar image, as they reflect radar waves. Every satellite technology has its advantages and disadvantages. In order to get the most comprehensive image of what we are observing, we must combine them. The more diverse data and signatures we obtain, the better our analyses will be, and the more effectively we will be able to operate.

After launching 12 satellites into space, within just two years the Polish Armed Forces will have the most advanced satellite reconnaissance capabilities in Europe. Naturally, the US and China remain unrivaled powers in this domain, but how is it possible that in such a short time Poland can surpass France, Germany, and other developed countries that have been investing in satellite technology for years?

Poland had been planning to develop capabilities in the space domain for many years, but the necessary systems are not cheap. Eventually, however, the decision to purchase satellites, among other things, was made, and it was obviously influenced by Russia’s aggression in Ukraine in 2022. In response to this threat, we significantly accelerated the modernization and development of all branches of our armed forces. We started spending billions on missile systems, tanks, aircraft, but also on satellite reconnaissance, without which the operational capabilities of such systems would be severely limited. On the one hand, 12 satellites do not seem like much; collectively, other European countries may have more systems for observation, communications and navigation. However, in terms of Earth observation, Poland, at least within the next few years, will have superior capabilities compared to other European countries, including France and Germany. This stems from our strategy, which is based on the development of the mentioned three different constellations complementing one another.

Other countries are not doing that?

France has an extensive constellation of optical satellites but no SAR systems. Germany, on the other hand, specializes in radar systems and exchanges capabilities with France. We continue to use data obtained from our partners, but we are focusing on building our own capabilities. This will ensure our independence and a stronger position in data exchange. A partner with own resources, who can exchange them on equal terms, is treated differently. When concluding agreements with a commercial partner, we can never be entirely sure that we won’t be cut off from the data source for political reasons or during a crisis. Naturally, an American or French service provider will prioritize the interests of its national agency over a foreign user. In short, independence is of paramount importance if we want to be certain that in a crisis situation we will receive data on time and no one will interfere with its acquisition.

Independence, yes, but not at the expense of cooperation with our partners – is that our strategy?

Naturally, we will continue to cooperate with our international partners. As I mentioned, the more diverse data we can collect, the more effective our operations will be. This also applies to the frequency of imaging a given area, which requires numerous systems due to orbital mechanics. If, at any given moment, our satellite is unable to capture the desired image, we will use our partner’s data – and vice versa. This solution is beneficial to all parties involved.

The Satellite Operations Center (Centrum Operacji Satelitarnych – COS) was officially opened in March. What is the role of this unit?

It is a command-and-staff structure within ARGUS, responsible for planning and conducting operations in space. Until now, we haven’t developed such capabilities because we had no satellites of our own. One of the primary tasks of COS is to monitor space and prevent our satellites from colliding with other objects, such as space debris or other satellites. These threats are usually detected and monitored several days in advance.

Do situations like that happen frequently?

Space is an extreme environment with many dangers that must be taken into account, such as space weather, mainly related to the Sun’s cyclical activity. Most threats can be predicted through mathematical calculations and avoided by maneuvering the satellite, shutting down certain systems, etc. Such protection is partially automated, but operators at the Satellite Support Center (Centrum Wsparcia Satelitarnego – CWS) constantly monitor the condition of the satellite. The Satellite Operations Center is the command and planning element, while the Satellite Support Center is the operational element.

What competencies are required to work on such operations?

The backbone of the staff in units subordinate to ARGUS is made up of officers from the Military University of Technology, specializing in various fields: image reconnaissance, information technology, and communications. When they are recruited, they undergo comprehensive training in specialized courses, largely through cooperation with foreign partners and producers of the equipment they will operate.

Is the Polish military an attractive employer for people wishing to start a career in the space industry?

The opportunities we offer to young people today in terms of access to space technology have never been available in our country before. And I don’t think they will be available outside the military anytime soon. If someone dreams of working with satellite systems, now is a good time to try to join our ranks, because we’re still expanding. In recent years, space has certainly become more accessible thanks to the miniaturization of satellites. Soon, we’ll likely be talking about constellations made up of hundreds or thousands of satellites, much like Starlink. A career with our Agency is therefore a truly future-oriented professional path.

Speaking of the future: how will military operations in space develop, in your opinion?

In 2019, NATO recognized space as the fifth domain, thereby obliging all Alliance members to build capabilities for conducting space operations. There are more and more satellites with increasingly advanced capabilities. We are witnessing a space arms race that is taking place not only between the US and China but also among many smaller countries, which are developing their capabilities. Due to the miniaturization of systems, purchasing satellites is no longer as difficult and costly as it once was.

What are the implications of possessing such capabilities for modern military operations?

Observation, communications and satellite navigation play a crucial role in modern conflicts. The war in Ukraine is an excellent example of this. When the Russians were cut off from Starlink, their combat effectiveness declined because they were unable to carry out many operations. On the other hand, when the Ukrainians were given broad access to this communications system, they had an advantage over the Russians for some time. The same applies to navigation, which is used by weapon systems. The battle in the space domain is ongoing, which is why we need tools both on Earth and in space that will protect our resources from interference and, if necessary, disrupt the enemy’s systems.

Hostile actions against satellites can be carried out in cyberspace or the electromagnetic spectrum, and we need to build defensive capabilities in this area. There are also means of kinetic combat, like shooting down enemy satellites. For the time being, they are impractical, as they generate space debris. However, there is ongoing research and development into methods of quick removal or clearing such debris.

Due to the conflict taking place across our eastern border, we should keep a close eye on the Russian Federation’s activity in this area. Do the Russians pose a threat?

They have some potential, but the war in Ukraine has severely hampered the development of their space programs. The Americans currently launch the most satellites, but these are mainly commercial operations, related, for example, to the Starlink network. The Chinese are second and are noticeably increasing their capabilities. Russia has not launched many satellites in recent years and has also had problems with its systems reaching their intended orbits. The country clearly lacks funding and access to appropriate technologies. Instead, it focuses on disrupting the enemy’s systems. This is a clear signal that we must be prepared for space warfare in various dimensions, not only using satellites.

Col Leszek Paszkowski
Since June 2024, he has been the Head of the Geospatial Intelligence and Satellite Services Agency (ARGUS) in Warsaw. He was one of the officers responsible for establishing the Imagery Intelligence Center, which he commanded from 2019 to 2022. He has also gained experience on the international stage – as a national expert at the European Union Satellite Center and as the Chief of Staff of Operation EUROFOR ALTHEA at SHAPE.